Fabrication of three-dimensional metallic components via layer-by-layer laser cladding was first reported in 1978 by Breinan and Kear. In 1982, U.S. Pat. No. 4,323,756 issued to Brown et al., describes a method for the production of bulk rapidly solidified metallic articles of near-net shape, finding particular utility in the fabrication of certain gas turbine engine components including discs and knife-edge air seals. According to the disclosure, multiple thin layers of feedstock are deposited using an energy beam to fuse each layer onto a substrate. The energy source employed may be a laser or an electron beam. The feedstock employed in the practice of the invention may be either a wire or powder material, and this feedstock is applied to the substrate in such a fashion that it passes through the laser beam and fuses to the melted portion of the substrate.
Different technologies have since evolved to improve such processes. U.S. Pat. No. 4,724,299 is directed to a laser spray nozzle assembly including a nozzle body with a housing that forms an annular passage. The housing has an opening coaxial with a passageway, permitting a laser beam to pass therethrough. A cladding powder supply system is operably associated with the passage for supplying cladding powder thereto so that the powder exits the opening coaxial with the beam.
Various groups are now working world-wide on different types of layered manufacturing techniques for fabrication of near-net-shape metallic components. In particular, nozzles of the type described above have been integrated with multi-axis, commercially available CNC machines for the fabrication of 3-dimensional components. U.S. Pat. No. 5,837,960 resides in a method and apparatus for forming articles from materials in particulate form. The materials are melted by a laser beam and deposited at points along a tool path to form an article of the desired shape and dimensions. Preferably the tool path and other parameters of the deposition process are established using computer-aided design and manufacturing techniques. A controller comprised of a digital computer directs movement of a deposition zone along the tool path and provides control signals to adjust apparatus functions, such as the speed at which a deposition head which delivers the laser beam and powder to the deposition zone moves along the tool path.
Most existing techniques, however, are based on open-loop processes requiring either considerable amount of periodic machining or final machining for close dimensional tolerances. Continuous corrective measures during the manufacturing process are necessary to fabricate net shape functional parts with close tolerances and acceptable residual stress. One exception is the system described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,122,564, filed Jun. 30, 1998. This application, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, describes a laser-aided, computer-controlled direct-metal deposition, or DMD, system wherein layers of material are applied to a substrate so as to fabricate an object or to provide a cladding layer.
In contrast to previous methodologies, the DMD system is equipped with feedback monitoring to control the dimensions and overall geometry of the fabricated article in accordance with a computer-aided design (CAD) description. The deposition tool path is generated by a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) system for CNC machining, with post-processing software for deposition, instead of software for removal as in conventional CNC machining. Initial data using an optical feedback loop indicate that it totally eliminates intermediate machining and reduces final machining considerably. Surface finish in the order of 100 micron was observed. Even for closed-loop DMD technology, corrective measures are needed to address four major factors encountered during the process. They include dimension (height and width) control, the tailoring of composition, and the management of temperature and residual stress. Residual stresses, for example, may accumulate and lead to distortion and premature failure of the finished article during its use or operation. Although there are several techniques for post-mortem, i.e., after fabrication or after failure, these techniques are not timely and do not save the product. To alleviate the problem, periodic heat treatment is often needed. On the other hand, for cyclic loading applications, compressive residual stress improves the service life. Location and relative magnitude of stress are also important for the control of distortion. Residual stress also influences hardness.
Although progress is being made with respect to the management of unwanted properties in finished articles, additional work needs to be done in this regard. The combination of various management techniques would be particularly advantageous, especially in conjunction with closed-loop control. Continuous monitoring and control of height and width may be used to ensure close dimensional tolerance of the fabricated component, with distortion and cracking being simultaneously controlled through the monitoring and management of temperature and stress.